世界銀行-柬埔寨：解決公共財政和人力資源對教育成果的瓶頸 Cambodia Addressing Public Finance and Human Resource Bottlenecks to Education Outcomes

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CAMBODIA

ADDRESSINGPUBLICFINANCEANDHUMANRESOURCEBOTTLENECKSTOEDUCATIONOUTCOMES

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WORLDBANKGROUP

?2026TheWorldBank

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CAMBODIAAddressingPublicFinanceandHumanResourceBottleneckstoEducationOutcomes

TABLEOFCONTENTS

TABLEOFCONTENTS i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv

ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS v

EXECUTIVESUMMARY vii

1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1Methodology 3

2

EDUCATIONSECTORCONTEXT 4

2.1InstitutionalContext 4

2.2AnOverviewofEducationSpendinginCambodia 5

2.3AnOverviewofSchoolOperatingFunds 9

2.4TeacherComparativeStatistics 13

3

UNDERLYINGBOTTLENECKSIMPEDINGLEARNINGOUTCOMES 16

3.1Factor1–Childrenlackaccesstoqualitychildcareandearlychildhood

educationservices 16

3.2Factor2–Teachersarenotsufficientlytrainedtoeffectivelyperformtheirroles 22

3.3Factor3–Childrenarebeingallowedtofallbehind 35

3.4Factor4–Largeclasssizesarecompoundingtheproblem

ofstudentsfallingbehind 38

3.5Factor5–Theshortageofkeyinputsandpoorinfrastructure

areimpedinglearning 41

3.6Factor6–Managementofthesectorhasnotbeenmodernized 45

4

RECOMMENDATIONS 48

5

ANNEX 54

5

.1Methodology 54

6

BIBLIOGRAPHY 58

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LISTOFFIGURES

Figure1.1.NetEnrollmentRatesinPrimaryandLower-SecondarySchools,2009and2019 1

Figure1.2.ComparisonofCambodia’sSEA-PLM2019and2024ProficiencyLevels

inReadingandMathematics 2

Figure2.1.AGeographicalIllustrationofCambodia’sInstitutionalContext 4

Figure2.2.Cambodia’sGovernmentSpendingonEducation(asaPercentageofGDP) 5

Figure2.3.TotalGlobalEducationSpendinginConstant2022USTrillion,2010–2022 6

Figure2.4.ComparisonofCambodia’sEducationExpenditurewithRegionalASEANPeers 6

Figure2.5.Cambodia’sEducationExpenditureComparedtoLower-Middle-IncomePeers(2021) 7

Figure2.6.MoEYS’sExpenditurebyEconomicClassification 7

Figure2.7.DistributionofEducationExpenditureinOECDCountriesbyCategory(2022) 8

Figure2.8.ComparisonofPublicandPrivateExpenditureonEducationforEastAsiaandPacific

Countries(GDPPerCapita,Constant2015US) 8

Figure2.9.CompositionofCambodia’sHouseholdSpendinginEducation(Richestvs.Poorest) 9

Figure2.10.OverviewofFundFlowforSchoolOperatingFunds 10

Figure2.11.VolumeofSchoolOperatingFundsfrom2018to2023 10

Figure2.12.AverageMonthsofDelaysfromStartofQuarterinPoERequestsforSOFTransfers 11

FigureB2.1.1.SampleSOFAllocationsbyTypeofSchool 12

Figure2.13.FinancialQualityIndicatorsfromQualityofEducationServiceDeliveryStudies(MEF) 13

Figure2.14.ComparisonsofStudent-TeacherRatioswithRegionalPeersandbyIncomeLevels 14

Figure2.15.ComparisonofLower-SecondaryStudent-TeacherRatiosAcrossASEANMembers

andByIncomeClassification 14

Figure2.16.PrimaryandLower-SecondaryStudentsperClass,Cambodia,andOECDRange 15

Figure3.1.MoEYSTotalPublicExpenditure(bySubprograms)forProgram1(2018–2022) 16

Figure3.2.OECDTotalExpenditureonChildrenAges3–5asaPercentageofGDP(2022) 17

Figure3.3.OverviewofMoEYSSpendingin2023byProgramandEconomicClassification 19

Figure3.4.BreakdownofOperatingCostsbyTypeofEarlyChildcareServiceProviders 21

Figure3.5.TeacherMathTest“PercentCorrect”ScoresAcrossGrades6and9Components

andbyAgeCohorts,ComparedtoStudentNLAScores(2024) 22

Figure3.6.ProportionofSchoolLeaders,ByYearsofExperience 23

Figure3.7.IllustratedTeacher-andClass-BasedPlanningFramework 24

Figure3.8.Bottom-UpTeacherPlanningProcessIllustrated 27

Figure3.9.CalculationsofPrimaryTeachers 28

Figure3.10.CalculationsofLower-SecondaryTeachers 29

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Figure3.11.PercentageofSecondarySchoolsbyTeachersperClass(2023–2024) 30

Figure3.12.TeacherDistributionacrossAllProvinces 30

Figure3.13.Urban-RuralDifferencesofTeachersPerClass 33

Figure3.14.RecurrentandCapitalExpenditure(DomesticallyFinanced)for2015–2022 38

Figure3.15.DomesticandExternalFinancingasaShareofTotalMoEYSCAPEX(2015–2022) 39

Figure3.16.Domesticvs.ForeignFinancingTrendsinMoEYSCAPEX(2015–2022) 39

Figure3.17.MoEYSBudgetOutturnforCAPEX(DomesticandExternallyFinanced),2017–2022 40

Figure3.18.MoEYSExpenditureforCurriculumandLearningMaterials,2018–2022 41

Figure3.19.ResponsivenessofEducationSystems–IndexofShortage

ofEducationMaterials,2018–2022 42

LISTOFTABLES

TableES.1.RecommendationsforImprovingLearningOutcomesinCambodia xi

Table3.1.MoEYSPlanningNormsForCurriculum,Teachers,andStudents 25

Table3.2.ComparisonofTeacher-to-Class,Student-to-Teacher,andStudents-to-ClassRatios

oftheTop4andBottom4Provinces 31

Table3.3.AListofCoreGovernmentSystemstoSupportPFMandHRMProcesses

inEducation 45

Table3.4.AListofSystemstoSupportSchoolManagementinEducation 45

Table4.1.KeyGovernanceBottlenecksinCambodia’sEducationSystem

andRecommendationsforAddressingThem 48

TableA.1.ListofKeyOfficialsInterviewed 54

TableA.2.ListofKeyCentralGovernmentDepartmentsEngaged 54

TableA.3.ListofPrimarySchoolsVisitedforFieldInterviews 55

TableA.4.ListofLower-SecondarySchoolsVisitedforFieldInterviews 56

TableA.5.ListofModelSchoolsAddedtoFieldworkSample 57

TableA.6.ListofProvincialandDistrictOfficesSelectedforFieldwork 57

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ThisreportwaspreparedbytheWorldBankteamcomprisingofTessaClareCullen(PublicSectorSpecialistandTaskTeamLeader),SokbunthoeunSo(SeniorPublicSectorSpecialistandCo-TaskTeamLeader),FataNo(SeniorEducationSpecialistandCo-TaskTeamLeader),RathDaravuthSithy(PublicSectorSpecialist),LarsM.Sondergaard(LeadEconomist),TsuyoshiFukao(SeniorEducationSpecialist),PisithPhlong(PublicSectorSpecialist),SebastianFoo(InternationalDigitalGovernmentConsultant),JainHolsheimer(InternationalEducationConsultant),andSievlanLen(Consultant),withadditionalsupportfromSarahElizabethHaddock(SeniorSocialDevelopmentSpecialist),ChendaSem(SocialDevelopmentSpecialist),andSomphospheakHeng(Consultant).TheteamisalsogratefulfortheadditionalcontributionsandsupportfromtheWorldBank’sGovEnableteam,comprisingTimothyStephenWilliamson(SeniorGovernanceandPublicSectorSpecialist),SamuelRubenAlexanderGaroni(GovernanceSpecialist),NicholasTravis(InternationalConsultantonPFMinEducation),andAngelitaAdajarBombarda(Consultant),whichsignificantlyenrichedtheanalysisoftheunderlyinggovernancebottlenecksfromtheperspectivesofPFMineducation.

ThisworkprogramwasconductedundertheoverallguidanceofOleksiiBalabushko(PracticeManager),LalitaM.Moorty(RegionalDirectorforEastAsiaandthePacific,Prosperity),TaniaMeyer(CountryManager),andMariamSherman(DivisionDirector).TheteamwouldliketothankthepeerreviewersAnitaSobjak(SeniorGovernanceSpecialist),andTobyLinden(LeadEconomist).

TheteamisespeciallythankfultotheMinistryofEducation,Youth,andSport(MoEYS);theMinistryofCivilService(MCS);theMinistryofEconomyandFinance(MEF);andotherrelevantstakeholdersfortheirsupportandcontributions.Specifically,theteamwouldliketothankH.E.OungBorat,SecretaryofState,MoEYS,andH.E.TepPhyorith,SecretaryGeneraloftheGeneralSecretariat,MoEYS;

H.E.YoukBunna,PermanentSecretaryofState,MCS,andH.E.NeangLyna,Under-SecretaryofState,MCS;andH.E.YethVinel,UnderSecretaryofStateandformerDeputySecretaryGeneraloftheGeneralSecretariatofthePublicFinancialManagementReformProgramSteeringCommittee(GSC),andH.E.UmYouthy,DeputySecretaryGeneraloftheGSC,MEF.

Theteamalsogratefullythankstheteachers,schoolprincipals,communityrepresentatives,monks,parentsandguardians,andstudentswhogenerouslyspenttimewiththeteamduringoff-dutyhourstoprovidetheirinsightsduringfieldworkinterviews.

CoordinationsupportprovidedbyChanmoniroithPoan(ProgramAssistant)duringtechnicalassistancemissionsandfieldworkisalsogratefullyacknowledged.

ThisstudyisfinancedbytheMulti-DonorTrustFundonPublicFinancialManagementandServiceDeliverycontributedbyAustraliaandtheEuropeanUnion,andthesingle-donorAustralianPROMISETrustFund.

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ABBREVIATIONSANDACRONYMS

ASEAN

AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations

CAPEX

CapitalExpenditure

CPD

ContinuousProfessionalDevelopment

DoE

DistrictOfficeofEducation

DP

DevelopmentPartners

ECCD

EarlyChildhoodCareandDevelopment

ECE

EarlyChildhoodEducation

EFMIS

EducationFinancialManagementInformationSystem

EGL

EarlyGradeLearning

EGM

EarlyGradeMathematics

EGR

EarlyGradeReading

EMIS

EducationManagementInformationSystem

EMP

EducationManagementPlatform

ESP

EducationStrategicPlan

FTE

Full-TimeEquivalent

FMIS

FinancialManagementInformationSystem

GDP

GrossDomesticProduct

GPI

GenderParityIndex

HIC

High-IncomeCountry

HR

HumanResource

HRM

HumanResourceManagement

HRMIS

HumanResourceManagementInformationSystem

INSET

In-ServiceTraining

IT

InformationTechnology

KHR

KhmerRiel

LM

LineMinistry

LMIC

Lower-Middle-IncomeCountry

MCS

MinistryofCivilService

MEF

MinistryofEconomyandFinance

MoEYS

MinistryofEducation,Youth,andSport

MoI

MinistryofInterior

NER

NetEnrollmentRates

NLA

NationalLearningAssessment

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OECD

OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

PCS

ProvincialDepartmentofCivilService

PDH

PublishingandDistributionHouse

PEF

ProvincialDepartmentofEconomyandFinance

PoE

ProvincialDepartmentofEducation

PFM

PublicFinancialManagement

PFMRP

PublicFinancialManagementReformProgram

PIM

PublicInvestmentManagement

PISA-D

ProgramforInternationalStudentAssessmentforDevelopment

PLP

PrimaryLearningPlatform

PSTTC

PreschoolTeacherTrainingCollege

PTOM

PersonalizedTeachingtoOvercomeMarginalization

QSDS

QualityofServiceDeliverySurvey

SBM

School-BasedMentors

SDG

SustainableDevelopmentGoal

SEA-PLM

SoutheastAsiaPrimaryLearningMetrics

SIS

SchoolInformationSystem

SMC

SchoolManagementCommittee

SMIS

SchoolManagementInformationSystem

SOF

SchoolOperatingFund

SSOT

SingleSourceofTruth

STR

Student-TeacherRatio

STS

StudentTrackingSystem

TCP

TeacherCareerPathway

TnT

TrackandTraceSystem

TLM

TextbooksandLearningMaterials

UMIC

Upper-Middle-IncomeCountry

UNICEF

UnitedNations’ChildrenFund

WDI

WorldDevelopmentIndicators

WBG

WorldBankGroup

EXECUTIVESUMMARY

Cambodiahasmadesignificantstridesinexpandingaccesstoeducationoverthepastfewyears.Thisisevidencedbymarkedimprovementsinnetenrollmentrates(NERs)acrossprimary,lower-secondary,andupper-secondaryeducation.Cambodia’sNERsforprimary,lower-,andupper-secondaryeducationhaveimprovedsubstantiallybetween2001and2024,risingfrom84.0to97.2percent,17.0to75.2percent,and8.0to44.3percent,respectively.TheGenderParityIndex(GPI)foreducationenrollmenthasalsoimproved(1.0inprimaryand1.15to1.25forsecondaryeducation),meaningthatinacademicyear2022–23,morefemalestudentswereenrolledinsecondaryeducationthanmalestudents.

Despiteimprovedenrollment,theoverallstudentlearningoutcomeshavenotyetdemonstratedremarkableimprovements.NationalLearningAssessments(NLAs)andinternationalbenchmarksliketheSoutheastAsiaPrimaryLearningMetrics(SEA-PLM)andtheProgramforInternationalStudentAssessmentforDevelopment(PISA-D)haveillustratedthatmanyCambodianchildren,specificallyinprimaryeducation,arestillstrugglingtoacquirethefoundationalliteracyandnumeracyskillsnecessaryfortheirgradualprogressiontowardhigherlevelsofeducationandtheattainmentofhigh-skilledjobsinthelongrun.Forinstance,Grade6studentsansweredlessthan52percentofKhmerquestionsandunder50percentofmathquestionscorrectlyduringthe2021NLA.SignificantimprovementswereobservedduringtheSEA-PLM2024,wherethenumberofstudentswithlowproficiencyinreadingandmathematicswassignificantlyreducedcomparedtoresultsin2019(from24percentand16percentin2019to17percentand8percentin2024,respectively).Nevertheless,learningoutcomesremainrelativelylowcomparedtoregionalpeerslikeVietNamandMalaysia,underscoringtheneedforfurtherimprovements.

Cambodia’seducationspendinghasbeenincrementallyincreasingoverthepastdecade,butspendingstillremainsconsiderablybelowregionalandsimilarincomepeers.Between2011and2022,Cambodia’seducationspendingrosefrom1.6percentto2.2percentofgrossdomesticproduct(GDP,withGDPrebasing).PriortoGDPrebasing,thesefiguresappearedevenmorepronounced,doublingfrom1.5to3.1percentinthesameperiod.Thisincreaseispartofthegovernment’soverarchingefforttobolstersocialsectorspending,particularlyineducationandhealth,tospearheadhumancapitaldevelopmentinlinewithnationaldevelopmentpriorities.Despitethisincrease,Cambodia’seducationexpenditureremainsrelativelylowwhencomparedtoitsregionalandlower-andupper-middle-incomepeers.Closerexaminationalsorevealsthatthistrendwaslargelydrivenbyacross-the-boardsalaryincreasesfollowingcompensationreformsintroducedin2013.Asaresult,wageexpenditurehasbeenoccupyingasubstantialshareofeducationexpenditureovertheyears,hoveringataround70–80percentoftotaleducationexpenditure.Thelowlevelsofeducationspendingisanimportant,bindingconstraintforaddressingmanyoftheotherunderlyingissuesdiscussedthroughoutthisreport.

HouseholdspendingplaysanunusuallylargeroleinfinancingeducationinCambodia,relativetoothercountries.Themajorityofspending,particularlyinpubliclyfundedschools,goesintoschoolsuppliesandtutoring,suggestingtheyarecompensatingforweaknessesinpublicprovision.Cambodia’shouseholdsfinanceroughly59percentoftotaleducationspending,whichisfarabovetheaveragesforlower-middle-incomecountries(LMICs,39percent)andupper-middle-incomecountries(UMICs,30percent).Evenmorestriking,householdsstillfinanceabout50percentoftheresourcesforstudentsattendingpublicschools,meaningthatfamilieseffectivelycofinancewhatissupposedtobepubliclyfundededucation.ThispatternsuggeststhatCambodia’seducationsystemremainssignificantlyunderfundedfromthepublicside,forcingfamiliestofillthegap,includingcompensatingforweaknessesinpublicprovisionsuchassufficientlearningmaterialsandlowinstructionalquality.

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Lowlevelsofeducationexpenditure,underpinnedbythepredominanceofwageexpenses,leavelimitedfiscalspacetoinvestinkey“smart-buyinterventions”0F

1

forimprovinglearningoutcomes.Thecontinuedpersistenceofthesepoorlearningoutcomes,despitehighwageexpenditure,alsosuggeststhelatterhasnoteffectivelytranslatedintoimprovededucationoutcomes,highlightingotherfactors(apartfromlowwages)arealsoatplay.Thesefactorswillbedescribedasfollows.

UnderlyingBottlenecksImpedingLearningOutcomes

ThisreportidentifiessixinterrelatedfactorsascentralimpedimentstotheimprovementofstudentlearningoutcomesinCambodiaandanalyzesthegovernanceissuesassociatedwiththeseimpediments.

UtilizingtheWorldBank’s

FinEd:PublicFinancialManagement(PFM)inEducationTool,

thisstudyidentifiedthefollowingbottlenecks,andthensoughttoidentifytheirunderlyinggovernancedimensions,whetherrelatedtopublicfinancialmanagement(PFM),humanresourcemanagement(HRM),ordatamanagement.Combined,theypaintapictureoftheunderlyingcausesimpedingthequalityofeducationservicedeliveryinCambodia.Givenitsemphasisongovernanceissues,thereportdoesnotcoverallaspectsofeducationmanagement.Moreover,itfocusesmainlyonprimaryeducation,withsomeadditionalanalysesatthesecondarylevel.Therefore,additionalstudiesbuildingonitsfindingswillbeusefulforexploringotherchallengespertainingtoeducationdevelopmentinCambodia.

Factor1–Childrenlackaccesstoqualitychildcareandearlychildhoodeducation(ECE)services.

Cambodiahasthelowestpreschoolattendancerateintheregion,withonly33percentofchildrendemonstratingschoolreadinessskills,comparedto58percentinVietNam.Accesstopreschoolisalsolargelylimitedtofive-year-olds.

Underlyingproblems.Cambodia’spublicspendingonECEoneofthestaple“smart-buyinterventions”forimprovinglearningoutcomesremainsbelowregionalandinternationalbenchmarks.Also,publicspendingoneducationalprogramsremainsrelativelyskewedtowardsprimaryandsecondaryeducation,thuslimitingtheavailabilityofresourcestosupportitsscale-upandexpansioninthelongrun.ThisdisproportionatelevelofspendingcanbeattributedtoproblemsrangingfromthecontinuedrelianceonexternalfinancingcombinedwithsystemicPFM-relatedweaknessesintheexistingresourcecostingandprioritizationmechanisms.TheECEbudgetingprocessisalsocharacterizedbyfragmentedstreamsoffinancingandoverlappingresponsibilitiesacrossseverallevelsofgovernment,hinderingconsolidatedandsystematiccostaccountingthatisfundamentalforfacilitatingcredibleandpredictablefinancialplanning.Finally,thereisashortageofwell-qualifiedstaffdrivenbyHRMbottleneckslikeineffectivecapacityassessments,weakdecentralizationofeducationstafftosubnationalauthoritiesresponsibleformanagingdecentralizedECEfunctions,unattractiveincentives,andpersistingcapacityconstraintsofthePreschoolTeacherTrainingCollege(PSTTC)inaccommodatingincreasingstaffdemandaswellasdeliveringhigh-qualitypreserviceeducationforECEteachers.

Factor2–Teachersarenoteffectivelytrainedtoperformtheirroles.Theteachingprofessionhasbecomemoreattractive,withmuchhighercalibergraduatesapplying,resultinginconsiderableimprovementsinprimaryteachereducationqualifications.However,thishasnotyettranslatedintomeasurableimprovementsinteachermethodsandmathcompetencies,therebyaffectingtheirabilitytodeliverqualityearlygradelearning(EGL).Moreover,19percentofthetotalworkforce(thatis,the“contractteachers”)hasreceivedonlyaminimalamountoftrainingandwouldneedtobereplacedbyqualifiedteachersinthelongrun.Furthermore,despitetheincreaseinpayforprimaryteachersfollowingcompensationreforms,mostofthemcontinuetoworkonlyhalf-days,allocatingtheremainingtimetosecondaryjobsinnoncompliancewithcurrentteachingguidelines(84percentofteachersreportearningincomeviasecondaryjobs,perWorldBank2025b).Asaresult,performancemanagementremainsweakinincentivizingstrongteacher

1“Smartbuys”arekeyeducationinterventionsthathavebeenwidelyproventobecost-effectiveinimprovingstudentlearningoutcomesatscale(GEEAP2020).

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performanceandaccountabilityinschools.Teacherdistributionisalsouneven,withruralschoolsfacingchronicshortageswhileurbanschoolsareoftenoverstaffed.

Underlyingproblems.Overalllowlevelsofpublicspendingoneducationremainabindingconstrainttostrengtheningtheteacherworkforce.Limitedfiscalspacerestrictsthesystem’sabilitytoprovideadequateteachingandlearningmaterials,implementqualityprofessionaldevelopmentatscale,andstrengthenperformancemanagementsystems.TeachermanagementalsosuffersfromsystemicHRMbottlenecksinplanning,deployment,training,andperformanceoversight.Thecurrentteacherplanningframeworkisunderminedbyinconsistenciesbetweencurriculumrequirementsandstaffingnorms.Instructiontimeisambiguouslydefined,leadingtounder-utilizationofteachercapacity.Thebottom-upplanningprocesslackstop-downcorrections,resultinginsignificantregionaldisparitiesinteacherallocation.Theseurban-ruralstaffingdisparitiesarefurtherentrenchedbythelackofgood-qualityHRdataandrobustoversightmechanisms.Teachertransfersareoftentreatedmoreasentitlementsthanneed-baseddecisions,exacerbatinginequitiesinteacherdistribution.Finally,performancemanagementislargelysymbolic:appraisalsareautomatic,andwagecompressionhasreducedthemotivationalimpactofsalaryincrements.Professionaldevelopmentframeworksarenotimplementedatscaleduetofundingconstraints,whichlimitseffortsinstrengtheningthecapacitiesofteachersforimprovedteachingquality.

Factor3–Studentsarebeingallowedtofallbehind,primarilyduetoalackofsustainedandhigh-qualityremedialsupportforstrugglingor“slow”learners).

2

Classroomsexhibitwidedisparitiesinstudentproficiency:24percentofGrade5studentscanreadonlysimplewords,whileattheotherendofthescale,just19percentareabletomeetglobalminimumproficiency.

Underlyingproblems.AlthoughtheMinistryofEducation,Youth,andSport(MoEYS)hasissuedguidelinesforprovidingremedialsupporttoslowlearners,implementationremainsweak.Moreover,loweducationspendinghasleftschoolswithlimitedresourcestoeffectivelydelivercost-effectivesmart-buyinterventionsliketargetedinstruction(PersonalizedTeachingtoOvercomeMarginalization–PTOM)andstructuredpedagogies(EGL).AForeign,CommonwealthandDevelopmentOffice–fundedpilotof“TeachingattheRightLevel”(aglobalbestbuy)wasimplementedfromNovember2025toFebruary2026in32publicschoolsacrossKampongChamandBattambangprovincestosupportGrades4–5studentswhostruggleacademically.Thepilotisbeingrigorouslyevaluatedandwillprovidelessonstobuildon.IntermsofPFM,theSchoolOperatingFund’s(SOF)financialassistancestructureisalsonotfullyconduciveforsupportingslowlearners.ItlacksadedicatedfundingchanneltofunnelresourcestothemandstillhasrigidspendingrulesgoverningthepurchaseofinputslikeEGLmaterials.

3

RegardingHRM,mostteachershavenotbeenwell-supportedtoprovideeffectiveremedialsupporttoslowlearners,despitetheamountofextraworkneeded.Manyhavereceivedrelevantin-servicetrainings(INSET)butarestillunabletoeffectivelyassistslowlearnersduetolackofsupportingmaterials,structuredguidance,andongoingpedagogicalandinstructionalconsultations.Moreover,mentoringeffortsareoperationalbutpoorlysustainedduetoweakincentivesformentors.Whiletheseissuesprimarilystemfromthelackofresourcesmentionedearlier,theweakcapacitiesandperformancemanagementofteachers(discussedinfactor2)arealsomaincontributingfactors.Finally,thereislimitedutilizationofstudentlearningdatatodesignandinformremedialinterventionsatthepolicyandplanninglevels,therebyunderminingtheiroverallefficacyinimprovingstudentlearningoutcomes.

Factor4–Largeclasssizesarecompoundingtheproblemofstudentsfallingbehind..Over75percentofprimarystudentsareinclasseswithmorethan30students,andnearly30percentareinclasseswithover40.Studentsinlargerclassesperformsignificantlyworsethanthoseinsmallerones,withlearninglossesacceleratinginclassesexceeding50students.

2InCambodia,studentswhohavefallenbehindarereferredtoas“slowlearners.”

3Forexample,someschooldirectorsstillexpectparentstocontributetopurchasingEGLmaterialsalthoughthereisnoministerialguidanceorinstructionautho